Atenas - Grécia
Localização atual não obtida
OST - 1852
Pericles'
Funeral Oration is a famous speech from Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War. The speech was
delivered by Pericles,
an eminent Athenian politician, at the end of the first year of the Peloponnesian War (431–404
BC) as a part of the annual public funeral for the war
dead.
It was an
established Athenian practice by the late 5th century to hold a public funeral
in honour of all those who had died in war. The remains of the dead were
left in a tent for three days so that offerings could be made. Then a funeral
procession was held, with ten cypress coffins carrying the remains, one for
each of the Athenian tribes,
and another for the remains that could not be identified. Finally they were
buried at a public grave (at Kerameikos). The last part
of the ceremony was a speech delivered by a prominent Athenian citizen.
Several
funeral orations from classical Athens are extant, which seem to
corroborate Thucydides'
assertion that this was a regular feature of Athenian funerary custom in
wartime.
The Funeral
Oration was recorded by Thucydides in book two of his famous History of the Peloponnesian War. Although Thucydides records
the speech in the first person as if it were a word for word record of
what Pericles said, there
can be little doubt that he edited the speech at the very least. Thucydides
says early in his History that the speeches presented are not
verbatim records, but are intended to represent the main ideas of what was said
and what was, according to Thucydides, "called for in the situation". We can be reasonably sure that Pericles delivered a
speech at the end of the first year of the war, but there is no consensus as to
what degree Thucydides' record resembles Pericles' actual speech. Another
confusing factor is that Pericles is known to have delivered another funeral
oration in 440 BC during the Samian War. It is
possible that elements of both speeches are represented in Thucydides' version.
Nevertheless, Thucydides was extremely meticulous in his documentation, and
records the varied certainty of his sources each time. Significantly he begins
recounting the speech by saying: "Περικλῆς ὁ Ξανθίππου ... ἔλεγε τοιάδε",
i.e. "Pericles, son of Xanthippos, spoke like this". Had he
quoted the speech verbatim, he would have written "τάδε"
("this", or "these words") instead of "τοιάδε"
("like this" or "words like these").
The Funeral
Oration is significant because it differs from the usual form of Athenian
funeral speeches. David
Cartwright describes it as "a eulogy of Athens
itself..."
The speech
glorifies Athens' achievements, designed to stir the spirits of a state still
at war.
The speech
begins by praising the custom of the public funeral for the dead, but
criticises the inclusion of the speech, arguing that the "reputations of
many brave men" should "not be imperilled in the mouth of a single
individual". Pericles argues that the speaker of the oration has the
impossible task of satisfying the associates of the dead, who would wish that
their deeds be magnified, while everyone else might feel jealous and suspect
exaggeration.
Pericles
begins by praising the dead, as the other Athenian funeral orations do, by
regard the ancestors of present-day Athenians (2.36.1–2.36.3), touching briefly
on the acquisition
of the empire.
At this point,
however, Pericles departs most dramatically from the example of other Athenian
funeral orations and skips over the great martial achievements of Athens' past:
"That part of our history which tells of the military achievements which
gave us our several possessions, or of the ready valour with which either we or
our fathers stemmed the tide of Hellenic or foreign
aggression, is a theme too familiar to my hearers for me to dwell upon, and I
shall therefore pass it by." Instead, Pericles proposes to focus on
"the road by which we reached our position, the form of government under
which our greatness grew, and the national habits out of which it sprang". This
amounts to a focus on present-day Athens; Thucydides' Pericles thus decides to
praise the war dead by glorifying the city for which they died.
"If we
look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private
differences...if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the
obscurity of his condition. The freedom we enjoy in our government extends also
to our ordinary life. There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance over
each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our neighbour for doing
what he likes..." These lines form the roots of the famous phrase "equal
justice under law." The liberality of which Pericles spoke also
extended to Athens' foreign policy: "We throw open our city to the world,
and never by alien acts exclude foreigners from any opportunity of learning or
observing, although the eyes of an enemy may occasionally profit by our
liberality..." Yet Athens' values of equality and openness do not,
according to Pericles, hinder Athens' greatness, indeed, they enhance it,
"...advancement in public life falls to reputations for capacity, class
considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit...our ordinary
citizens, though occupied with the pursuits of industry, are still fair judges
of public matters...at Athens we live exactly as we please, and yet are just as
ready to encounter every legitimate danger."
In the climax
of his praise of Athens, Pericles declares: "In short, I say that as a
city we are the school of Hellas; while I doubt if the world can produce a man,
who, where he has only himself to depend upon, is equal to so many emergencies,
and graced by so happy a versatility as the Athenian." Finally,
Pericles links his praise of the city to the dead Athenians for whom he is
speaking, "...for the Athens that I have celebrated is only what the
heroism of these and their like have made her...none of these men allowed
either wealth with its prospect of future enjoyment to unnerve his spirit, or
poverty with its hope of a day of freedom and riches to tempt him to shrink
from danger. No, holding that vengeance upon their enemies was more to be
desired than any personal blessings, and reckoning this to be the most glorious
of hazards, they joyfully determined to accept the risk... Thus, choosing to
die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from
dishonour..." The conclusion seems inevitable: "Therefore, having
judged that to be happy means to be free, and to be free means to be brave, do
not shy away from the risks of war". With the linkage of Athens' greatness
complete, Pericles moves to addressing his audience.
In his speech,
Pericles states that he had been emphasising the greatness of Athens in order
to convey that the citizens of Athens must continue to support the war, to show
them that what they were fighting for was of the utmost importance. To help
make his point he stated that the soldiers whom he was speaking of gave their
lives to a cause to protect the city of Athens, its citizens, and its freedom. He
praised Athens for its attributes that stood out amongst their neighbours such
as its democracy when he elaborates that trust is justly placed on the citizens
rather than relying only on the system and the policy of the city. Where citizens
boast a freedom that differs from their enemies' the Lacedaemonians. He
regards the soldiers who gave their lives as truly worth of merit. That if
anyone should ask, they should look at their final moments when they gave their
lives to their country and that should leave no doubt in the mind of the
doubtful. He explained that fighting for one's country was a great honour,
and that it was like wearing a cloak that concealed any negative implications
because his imperfections would be outweighed by his merits as a citizen. He
praises the soldiers for not faltering in their execution during the war. That
the soldiers put aside their desires and wishes for the greater cause. Because
as they are described by Pericles, Athenian citizens were distinct from the
citizens of other nations – they were open minded, tolerant, and ready to
understand and follow orders. Where their system of democracy allowed them to
have a voice amongst those who made important decisions that would affect them.
Therefore, he proceeds to point out that the greatest honour and act of valour
in Athens is to live and die for freedom of the state Pericles believed was
different and more special than any other neighbouring city.
Pericles then
turns to the audience and exhorts them to live up to the standards set by the
deceased, "So died these men as becomes Athenians. You, their survivors,
must determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may
pray that it may have a happier outcome."
Pericles ends
with a short epilogue, reminding the audience of the difficulty of the task of
speaking over the dead. The audience is then dismissed.
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