sábado, 3 de julho de 2021

O Rádio no Brasil - Artigo


 

O Rádio no Brasil - Artigo
Artigo


Cerca de metade dos brasileiros não sabia ler em 1950. Esse fato tornava difícil a difusão de notícias através de jornais e revistas, dificuldade acentuada pela extensão continental do país. Não é surpresa, assim, que o rádio, introduzido aqui nos anos 1920, tivesse um papel fundamental para que a nação soubesse o que ocorria de um lado a outro do Brasil, recebendo informações acerca das mudanças ocorridas na política e na economia. Para além de transmissor de notícias, o rádio também se apresentava como um veículo que difundia a cultura das várias partes do Brasil e do mundo, levando novos e velhos estilos musicais, radionovelas, eventos esportivos aos lares em boa parte do território nacional.
Um grupo de amadores pernambucanos liderados por Augusto Pereira criou a primeira rádio brasileira ainda em 1919: a Rádio Clube de Pernambuco. Três anos depois, durante as celebrações pelo centenário da independência, o presidente Epitácio Pessoa fez um pronunciamento a partir do Teatro Municipal, na Cinelândia (centro da então Capital Federal) que foi transmitido ao público presente na Esplanada do Castelo, na inauguração da grande exposição do evento. Em 1923, Roquette Pinto e Henrique Morize inauguram a Rádio Sociedade do Rio de Janeiro, que posteriormente viria se tornar a Rádio Roquette Pinto.
Nos anos 1920 não havia permissão para rádios comerciais, o que limitou seu crescimento e acabou por tornar o veículo um tanto elitista, já que somente sociedades e organizações afluentes poderiam bancar um empreendimento radiofônico. Mas o decreto 21.111, de 1932 aprova o regulamento para a execução dos serviços de radiocomunicação no território nacional, definindo o rádio como um "serviço de interesse nacional e de finalidade educativa", autorizando a publicidade radiofônica permitida no limite de até 10% da programação transmitida pelas emissoras. Este decreto também versava sobre a formação da mão de obra no setor, que a partir de então absorveria um sem-número de novos profissionais nas áreas técnicas, de administração, propaganda, além, é claro, de muitos artistas. A partir daí, cresceu a profissionalização do meio (desde a formação da mão de obra até o pagamento de cachê aos artistas) e sua paulatina associação com a nascente indústria fonográfica.
Os primeiros fonógrafos chegaram no Brasil no final do século XIX, e os gramofones, poucos anos depois. A Casa Edson, do imigrante Figner, loja de discos e primeira gravadora instalada no país em 1900, dominou a indústria de discos no início do século XX no Brasil, lançando novidades e artistas desconhecidos antes mesmo do advento do rádio. Em 1912 fundou a fábrica Odeon, que chegou a prensar um milhão de discos por ano, além de milhares de gravações musicais. Nos anos 1930, quando do início da ascensão do rádio no Brasil, gravadoras norte-americanas e europeias já haviam se instalado no país: a Odeon original (de quem Figner havia emprestado o nome), a Victor, a Columbia, entre outras. Naquela altura, vários artistas brasileiros já tinham sido gravados e estavam sendo vendidos nas lojas, difundindo país afora ritmos regionais como o choro, o xote, o baião. Logo essas gravações ganhariam as ondas do rádio e penetrariam os lares de brasileiros das mais variadas classes sociais.
Uma vez que as emissoras comercializavam propaganda de variados produtos e assim poderiam capitalizar o empreendimento, logo estabeleceu-se acirrada concorrência pelo público. Além de música e notícias, eventos esportivos, radioteatro e radionovelas, programas sobre saúde e política disputavam a audiência. Ao longo das décadas seguintes, a programação se diversificou e as rádios tornaram-se uma referência cultural fundamental, não apenas por lançar artistas e difundir clássicos da literatura em suas radionovelas , mas também por alavancar e incentivar a utilização de novos produtos e estilos de vida. As propagandas e, principalmente, as revistas voltadas para os artistas do rádio traziam para o público novos padrões de consumo e comportamento. Muito, aliás, à semelhança do que ocorreria com a televisão a partir dos anos 1960.
Apenas na década de 1930, quase 60 novas emissoras foram inauguradas o que, juntamente com a queda no preço dos aparelhos de rádio, contribuiu para popularizar o veículo. Grandes nomes da nossa música, e também da dramaturgia, foram lançados na era de ouro do rádio – dos anos 1930 a década de 1950. Alguns saíam do teatro (inclusive do chamado teatro de revista) para o sucesso no rádio; outros percorriam o caminho inverso. Nomes como Pixinguinha, Sinhô, Bide, João da Baiana – enfim, os primeiros sambistas, alguns oriundos de bairros pobres, conseguiram uma projeção que jamais seria possível sem um meio de comunicação de massa como o rádio. O exemplo dos sambistas do Rio de Janeiro foi seguido Brasil afora, e o país passou a partilhar um repertório cultural comum e a consumir o que era produzido em diversas partes do território.
Reis e Rainhas do Rádio , o Rei da Voz, a Pequena Notável são apenas algumas das alcunhas que passaram para a história. Foi também durante este período que o cinema se popularizou, e com ele, aumentou a influência da indústria cultural norte-americana. Como não poderia deixar de ser, o rádio também abriu suas portas para o mundo e trouxe músicas e costumes de terras muito distantes para os lares brasileiros.
Para além da música, a informação em tempo real foi um dos aspectos mais marcantes da ascensão do rádio. Não podemos deixar de perceber que a maior parte da Era de Ouro do Rádio deu-se sob os governos de Getúlio Vargas (1930-1945, e 1951-1954). Nas eleições de 1930 já havia ocorrido a utilização politica do rádio, mas foi nas décadas seguintes que sua importância se tornaria central. Vargas percebe desde cedo o potencial da radiodifusão, e atua no sentido de manter o setor sob a tutela do estado, o que se tornaria uma herança persistente na regulamentação do setor de comunicações no Brasil. Incentiva seu potencial como fator de integração nacional em um país gigante e povoado por um grande número de analfabetos, ao mesmo tempo em que o utiliza como propagador de uma cultura nacional condizente com o seu projeto político. Especialmente durante o Estado Novo (1937-1945) a censura e o controle das comunicações de uma forma geral se acentuaria, com a criação do DIP (Departamento de Imprensa e Propaganda) em 1939 para regulamentar e vigiar a produção de notícias e a veiculação de entretenimento.
Uma das ações do governo de Vargas durante o Estado Novo foi a criação do programa diário A hora do Brasil (nascido em 1935 com o nome Programa Nacional, alterado 3 anos depois), obrigatoriamente transmitido por todas as emissoras no mesmo horário. As notícias veiculadas originavam-se dos órgãos oficiais, sendo portanto a versão mais enaltecedora possível das virtudes do estadista no poder.
Outro programa de notícias – desta vez, não oficial, embora submetido a censura como todos os outros - a fazer sucesso entrou no ar em agosto de 1941 e era transmitido simultaneamente por várias emissoras em cadeia: Rio de Janeiro (Rádio Nacional), São Paulo (Rádio Record e, depois, Tupi), Recife (Rádio Jornal do Commercio), Porto Alegre (Rádio Farroupilha) e Belo Horizonte (Rádio Inconfidência). Era o Repórter Esso – Testemunha Ocular da História, patrocinado pela norte-americana Standard Oil e seguia os manuais de jornalismo daquele país. Sua transmissão dos acontecimentos da Segunda Guerra Mundial foi marcante, e o programa tornou-se tão popular que migrou para a televisão na década seguinte. Tanto A hora do Brasil como Repórter Esso foram fundamentais para manter o povo brasileiro a par dos acontecimentos da Segunda Guerra Mundial, inclusive a participação do Brasil no conflito.
Três emissoras destacaram-se na Era de Ouro do Rádio: Nacional, Mayrink Veiga e Tupi. Seus programas musicais, com marcante participação do auditório (a esmagadora maioria dos programas do rádio era ao vivo), os humoristas, as radionovelas, os grandes astros, os jingles, as campanhas, as transmissões esportivas, o noticiário – juntamente com emissoras espalhadas pelo Brasil, ajudaram a criar, através da cultura popular de massa que produziam e difundiam, uma nova identidade nacional.

Vista Aérea do Estádio Municipal Paulo Machado de Carvalho, Pacaembu, São Paulo, Brasil


 

Vista Aérea do Estádio Municipal Paulo Machado de Carvalho, Pacaembu, São Paulo, Brasil
São Paulo - SP
Fotografia

Casa Perto da Ferrovia (House by the Railroad) - Edward Hopper


 

Casa Perto da Ferrovia (House by the Railroad) - Edward Hopper
MoMA Museu de Arte Moderna de Nova York, Estados Unidos
OST - 61x73 - 1925


A late-afternoon glow pervades Hopper’s House by the Railroad, which features a grand Victorian home, its base and grounds obscured by the tracks of a railroad. The tracks create a visual barrier that seems to block access to the house, which is isolated in an empty landscape. The juxtaposition of the house and the railroad tracks may be read as a confrontation between the fixity of tradition and the possibility of mobility in early-twentieth-century America. At the same time, these effects evoke the quiet yet charged atmosphere that would become a hallmark of this artist’s work.
Hopper produced closely observed urban views, landscapes (largely of New England), and interior scenes—all sparsely populated with figures or devoid of them entirely. Although he insisted that his paintings were straightforward representations of the real world, they are often filled with an unmistakable sense of loneliness, estrangement, stillness, and mystery. Light, whether natural or artificial, plays a central role in conjuring mood.


New York Movie, Nova York, Estados Unidos (New York Movie) - Edward Hopper


 

New York Movie, Nova York, Estados Unidos (New York Movie) - Edward Hopper
Nova York - Estados Unidos
MoMA Museu de Arte Moderna de Nova York, Estados Unidos
OST - 81x101 - 1939

New York Movie is an oil on canvas painting by American Painter Edward Hopper. The painting was begun in December of 1938 and finished in January of 1939. Measuring 32 1/4 x 40 1/8", New York Movie depicts a nearly empty movie theater occupied with a few scattered moviegoers and a pensive usherette lost in her thoughts. Praised for its brilliant portrayal of multiple light sources, New York Movie is one of Hopper's well-regarded works. Despite the fact that the movie in the painting itself is not known, Hopper's wife and fellow painter Josephine Hopper wrote in her notes on New York Movie that the image represents fragments of snow-covered mountains.
New York Movie is a composite painting, meaning that it combines several separate sources into a single work. As she did for many of his paintings, Josephine Hopper, a famous painter in her own right for years before her marriage to Hopper, served as a muse for New York Movie, having posed under a lamp in the hall of his apartment. As with many of his other works, Hopper did not attempt to paint her with any obvious sexual appeal, as he hoped with his work to paint women with complete honesty towards their situation, both exterior and interior. Some claim that New York Movie is a counterpart to Édouard Manet's A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, with the usherette a modern representation of the waitress.
While the theater depicted in New York Movie is entirely designed by him, he took inspiration from the Palace Theatre (New York City), the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre (at the time known as the Globe Theatre), the Republic Theater (now known as the New Victory Theater, and the Strand Theatre (Manhattan), making over fifty sketches of the theaters before he began the project. Hopper was fascinated by film, and it is said that, when experiencing creative block, he would stay at the theater all day. Despite his fascination with film, New York Movie itself depicts an isolation and melancholy, even though theaters at the time sat up to thousands. Furthermore, some critics argue that the usherette is lost in her imagination only as a result of her separation from the movie currently playing, a sleight against movie going audiences of the time period, and that her separation incurs sympathy within the viewer. Others claim that New York Movie and other paintings of city life are Hopper's ode to the warmth and endurance of the human spirit in the midst of the dehumanizing existence that is mass living. Hopper also drew inspiration from Edgar Degas—specifically Interior—in terms of the composition of the lighting as well as the overall nocturnal nature of the work.

Janelas Noturnas (Night Windows) - Edward Hopper

 


Janelas Noturnas (Night Windows) - Edward Hopper
MoMA Museu de Arte Moderna de Nova York, Estados Unidos
OST - 73x86 - 1928


Attending to private affairs in her apartment, the anonymous woman in Night Windows is unaware of any viewer's gaze. The painting exposes the voyeuristic opportunities of the modern American city, and the contradiction it offers between access to the intimate lives of strangers and urban loneliness and isolation. The city at night is a frequent subject in Hopper's work of the late 1920s and early '30s. Here, the composition of three windows allows for a dramatic setting of illuminated interior against dark night, a juxtaposition the artist identified as "a common visual sensation."

Quarto no Brooklyn, Nova York, Estados Unidos (Room in Brooklyn) - Edward Hopper



Quarto no Brooklyn, Nova York, Estados Unidos (Room in Brooklyn) - Edward Hopper
Nova York - Estados Unidos
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Estados Unidos
OST - 73x86 - 1932


O Oudezijds Heerenlogement em Amsterdã, Holanda (The Oudezijds Heerenlogement in Amsterdam) - Gerrit Adriaensz. Berckheyde

 


O Oudezijds Heerenlogement em Amsterdã, Holanda (The Oudezijds Heerenlogement in Amsterdam) - Gerrit Adriaensz. Berckheyde
Amsterdã - Holanda
Amsterdam Museum, Amsterdã, Holanda
Óleo sobre painel - 30x41 - Circa 1660-1680

O Oudezijds Heerenlogement, na Confluência do Grimburgwal e do Oudezijds Voorburgwal, Amsterdã, Holanda (The Oudezijds Heerenlogement, on the Confluence of the Grimburgwal and the Oudezijds Voorburgwal, Amsterdam) - Gerrit Adriaensz. Berckheyde

 







O Oudezijds Heerenlogement, na Confluência do Grimburgwal e do Oudezijds Voorburgwal, Amsterdã, Holanda (The Oudezijds Heerenlogement, on the Confluence of the Grimburgwal and the Oudezijds Voorburgwal, Amsterdam) - Gerrit Adriaensz. Berckheyde
Amsterdã - Holanda
Coleção privada
Óleo sobre painel - 31x41


By the 1660s, following a century of rapid expansion that continued unabated, Amsterdam was the richest city in the world. Cosimo de' Medici visited the city in 1667/9, and was suitably impressed with what he saw, writing: ‘Greater trade is done in Amsterdam than in any other city of the world… Foreigners are astounded when they first see it, and it appears that the four corners of the world have despoiled themselves to enrich her and to bring their rarest and most curious treasures into her port’. An English guide from 1669 noted: ‘It is justly called the modern Tyre, as being the most beautiful, noble, opulent trading city in the world. Strangers are struck with amazement at the sight of it’.
Generally averse to painting capriccios, the careful and accurate painted views of Amsterdam by Gerrit Berckheyde arguably give us a clearer idea of what the city looked like in the second half of the 17th century that any other visual source, even Jan van der Heyden, who more often resorted to artistic licence. There is no evidence that Berckheyde moved to Amsterdam, and it seems likely that he travelled there from Haarlem, perhaps using the hourly trekvaart (horse-drawn ferry), and then made sketches of sites that interested him which he brought back to his native city to work up into finished paintings such as the present example. Berckheyde’s paintings glorify the Dutch capital, and celebrate her impressive new buildings and canals, and though a resolute Haarlemmer, he was certainly painting for a newly wealthy Amsterdam clientele. He was particularly interested in the architecture resulting from the expansion of the city in the years around 1660, including the new neighbourhoods created by the ring of canals, most famously the Gouden Bocht on the Herengracht, but also new and impressive buildings erected in older parts of the core of the city. The Dreesmann picture is an excellent example of this. The site of this view is the Grimburgwal, just south of the Dam, with the Oudezijds Voorburgwal opening up to the left and the end of Oudezijds Achterburgwal beyond.
The prominent building to the right, arguably the subject of this picture, is the Oudezijds Heerenlogement, built by Philip Vingboons in 1647 as one of Amsterdam’s four official inns. During the 17th century it provided temporary lodging for numerous important visitors, including Amalia van Solms in 1655, the Stadtholder and later King of England William III in 1672, and the Tsar Peter the Great in 1697–98. It was luxuriously appointed: in 1653 an English tourist deemed it ‘the noblest tavern in the world’, hung with gilt leather, tiled with black and white marble and furnished with a ‘glorious’ organ. It was demolished in the 19th century, to make way for a building that now forms part of the University of Amsterdam (the entrance gate was moved to Keizersgracht 365 where it remains). The house to the left remains today. Known as the Huis Aan De Drie Grachten because of its site on the confluence of three canals, it dates from 1609. The building to the right of the Heerenlogement, is a City warehouse (as is the building next to it, out of the picture). Both had their gables replaced in the 18th century with more curved profiles. The façade of the Heerenlogement is seen in Pieter Schenk's engraving of about 1700, which shows both warehouses. The wider right-hand one is framed by four classical pilasters, the left-hand one can be seen in the extreme right of the Dreesmann Berckheyde.
The buildings in the distance at the start of the Oudezijds Achterburgwal have all been demolished and replaced, as has the classical gateway, the entrance to the Sint Pieters gasthuis, which was superseded by a more baroque structure, crowned with the Arms of Amsterdam flanked by reclining figures. All of these now comprise part of the University of Amsterdam. The bridge spanning the Grimburgwal was also demolished, sometime after 1790.
Another signed version of this composition by Berckheyde is in the Amsterdam Museum. Both views are from precisely the same spot, but the figures and boats are wholly different. Given the importance of the subject, it is not at all surprising that Berckheyde painted more than one version.

O Interior de uma Igreja Gótica (The Interior of a Gothic Church) - Hendrick van Steenwijck e Cornelis van Poelenburch



 

O Interior de uma Igreja Gótica (The Interior of a Gothic Church) - Hendrick van Steenwijck e Cornelis van Poelenburch
Coleção privada
Óleo sobre painel de cobre - 30x41


The painter was the son and pupil of Hendrick van Steenwijck the Elder (c. 1550–1603), the acknowledged creator of the genre of architectural painting. Together with Pieter Neeffs the Elder (1578–1656) he was without question the pre-eminent painter of church interiors in England and the Low Countries in the first quarter of the seventeenth century. He was trained in his father’s workshop, and their works are stylistically so close that they are sometimes confused. He was probably active for some years in Antwerp, where he collaborated with painters such as Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625) and Frans Francken the Younger (1581–1642). By 15 November 1617 Steenwijck had settled in London, where he painted architectural interiors in the backgrounds of portraits by Van Dyck and Daniel Mytens, such as the Portrait of King Charles I of 1625/27 by Van Dyck now in Turin. He stayed in England for at least twenty years, and his small-scale cabinet paintings, very often of interiors, were highly prized by Carolean collectors, including the King himself, who owned several examples.
Although this previously unrecorded church interior has traditionally been identified as that of the cathedral in Antwerp, it is most likely imaginary, perhaps with reminiscences of that building. Its composition relates most closely to a group of early works by Steenwijck, painted in the first decade of the seventeenth century and all heavily under the influence of his father’s work. The same architectural setting is to be found in two very similar early works, one of 1605 in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, and another of 1607 in the Gallinat Bank in Essen. A third such interior, formerly in the Blundell collection, though neither signed or dated, is today in the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool. In all of these works the staffage in the painting was painted by Steenwijck himself, but in the case of the present copper, it is the work of the well-known Utrecht painter Cornelis van Poelenburch (1594–1667). Although best known for his small-scale arcadian landscapes, Poelenburch regularly contributed figures to church interiors by other painters such as Bartholomeus van Bassen (1590–1652) and Dirck van Delen (1605–1671). This picture may therefore have been sent to Utrecht for completion or may have travelled with Steenwijck to England where he worked from 1617 until at least 1637. It is possible that the figures may even have been added by Poelenburch at this later period, for he too worked at the Stuart court between 1637 and 1641, where his cabinet pictures, like those of Steenwijck, were highly prized. Similarly, after leaving London Steenwijck worked in The Hague around 1638–42, a city with which Poelenburch had many connections. The two painters may have known of each other before this date, however, for another such collaboration, a larger panel depicting a Cathedral interior, signed by Steenwijck and dated 1621 and to which Poelenburch contributed many figures in Biblical dress, is preserved today at Petworth House in Sussex. That painting is recorded in two great early collections in London, those of the Dukes of Buckingham at York House and later the Earl of Northumberland at Suffolk House, and is recorded at Petworth by 1671 where an inventory of that year records a ‘rare Prospective done by Stenwick, the Figures by Pullenburke £100’. This latter valuation was among the highest in the collection, and provides a clear indication of the high esteem in which Steenwijck’s works were held at this date. Despite this the Petworth panel and the present copper seem to be very rare surviving examples of his working together with Poelenburch. A large canvas of 1620 showing Christ in the House of Martha and Mary today in the Louvre in Paris is one example of their collaboration, and to judge from photographs, another such may possibly be that sold London, Christie’s, 8 December 1994, lot 234. For all his fame, Steenwijck had no native followers in England and by 1638 he had settled again in the northern Netherlands, working in The Hague and Leiden, where his wife is recorded as a widow in 1649.

Cristo na Cruz com Maria e São João (Christ on the Cross with Mary and St John) - Rogier van der Weyden


 

Cristo na Cruz com Maria e São João (Christ on the Cross with Mary and St John) - Rogier van der Weyden
Museu Kunsthistorisches, Viena, Áustria
Óleo sobre painel - 96x140 - Circa 1443-1445


Christ on the Cross with Mary and St John is a c.1443-1445 altarpiece by Rogier van der Weyden, now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The central scene shows the Crucifixion of Jesus, with the Virgin Mary clinging to the foot of the cross, John the Evangelist comforting her and the painting's two donors kneeling to the right. On the left hand side panel is Mary Magdalene, whilst on the right side panel is St Veronica. A unified landscape background across all three panels shows Jerusalem in the distance.